Relations between Students’ Motivation, and Perceptions of the Learning Environment
Keywords:
Learning environment, Achievement Goal orientation, Course satisfaction, Higher education didactics, University students
Abstract
In this research, we have examined the characteristics of university students’ motivation and its connection with perceptions of the learning environment. Higher education teachers often find it challenging to decide how to organize their lectures and what instructional strategy they should use to be most effective. Therefore, we endeavoured to determine which characteristics of the learning environment best predict the motivational orientation of students and their satisfaction with the course. The survey included 120 postgraduate students of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Ljubljana. In order to measure their motivation, we employed several scales of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich et
al., 1991). For the purpose of this research, we created a new questionnaire for their evaluation of the learning environment. The results revealed a high correlation between the intrinsic goal orientation, self-efficacy, and control beliefs. The most important factors of the learning environment that are connected with the formation of intrinsic goal-orientation and the enjoyment of education are the perception of the usefulness of the studied topics, a feeling of autonomy, and teacher support. To an extent, these findings are supported by the findings of those authors who recommend using those methods of teaching that are in compliance with the student-centred understanding of teaching and learning.
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References
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Archer, J. (1994). Achievement Goals as a Measure of Motivation in University Students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19(4), 430–446. doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1031
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338–375. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Church, M. A., Elliot, A. J., & Gable, S. L. (2001). Perceptions of classroom environment, achievement goals, and achievement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 43–54.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.43
Cleveland, B., & Fisher, K. (2014). The evaluation of physical learning environments: a critical review of the literature. Learning Environments Research, 17(1), 1–28. doi:10.1007/s10984-013-9149-3
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Cunningham, D. J. (1992). Beyond educational psychology: Steps toward an educational semiotic. Educational Psychology Review, 4(2), 165–194. doi:10.1007/BF01322343
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1–27.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: theory and applications (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, Inc.
Dweck, C. S. (1985). Intrinsic motivation, perceived control, and self-evaluation maintenance: An achievement goal analysis. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on Motivation in Education: The classroom milieu. Academic Press.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218–232. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218
Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 461–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 628–644. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.628
Elliot, A. J., Murayama, K., & Pekrun, R. (2011). A 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 632–648. doi:10.1037/a0023952
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 5–12. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.5
Fraser, B. J. (1981). Test of Science Related Attitudes. Perth, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Fraser, B. J. (1989). Twenty years of classroom climate work: progress and prospect. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21(4), 307–327. doi:10.1080/0022027890210402
Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1982). Effects of Classroom Psychosocial Environment on Student Learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 52(3), 374–377. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1982.tb02525.x
Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions under Which Assessment Supports Students’ Learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1(1), 3–31.
Gijbels, D., & Dochy, F. (2006). Students’ assessment preferences and approaches to learning: can formative assessment make a difference? Educational Studies, 32(4), 399–409.
doi:10.1080/03055690600850354
Greene, B. A., Miller, R. B., Crowson, H. M., Duke, B. L., & Akey, K. L. (2004). Predicting high school students’ cognitive engagement and achievement: Contributions of classroom
perceptions and motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29(4), 462–482. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.01.006
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3),
638–645. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.638
Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., & Oliver, R. (2014). Authentic Learning Environments. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 401–412). Springer New York.
Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., & Midgley, C. (2002). Classroom goal structure and student disruptive behaviour. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(2), 191–211.
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141–184. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5
Lizzio, A., Wilson, K., & Simons, R. (2002). University Students’ Perceptions of the Learning Environment and Academic Outcomes: Implications for theory and practice. Studies in Higher
Education, 27(1), 27–52. doi:10.1080/03075070120099359
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Loyens, S. M. M., & Gijbels, D. (2008). Understanding the effects of constructivist learning environments: introducing a multi-directional approach. Instructional Science, 36(5-6), 351–357.
doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9059-4
Mažgon, J., & Štefanc, D. (2012). Importance of the Various Characteristics of Educational Materials: Different Opinions, Different Perspectives. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 11(3), 174–188.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 487–503. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070258
Middleton, M. J., & Midgley, C. (1997). Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: An underexplored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 710–718.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.710
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales. Michigan: University of Michigan.
Moos, R. H. (1974). Systems for the assessment and classification of human environments: An overview. In R. H. Moos & P. M. Insel (Eds.), Issues in Social Ecology: Human Milieus (pp. 5–29). Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.
Moos, R. H. (2002). The Mystery of Human Context and Coping: An Unraveling of Clues. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(1), 67–88. doi:10.1023/A:1014372101550
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328–346. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328
Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Nolen, S. B. (1985). Adolescents’ theories of education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 683–692. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.6.683
Nie, Y., & Lau, S. (2010). Differential relations of constructivist and didactic instruction to students’ cognition, motivation, and achievement. Learning and Instruction, 20(5), 411–423. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.04.002
Pajares, F. (1997). Current Directions in Self-efficacy Research. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 1–49). Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 544–555. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.544
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). A Manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (No. Technical Report No. 91-8-004). Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Merrill Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The
mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 408–422. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.3.408
Segers, M. (1996). Assessment in a Problem-Based Economics Curriculum. In M. Birenbaum & F. Dochy (Eds.), Alternatives inAssessment of Achievements, Learning Processes and Prior Learning (pp. 201–226). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement Goal Theory at the Crossroads: Old Controversies, Current Challenges, and New Directions. Educational Psychologist,
46(1), 26–47. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.538646
Skaalvik, E. M. (1997). Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self-perceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 71–81. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.71
Smith, L., Sinclair, K. E., & Chapman, E. S. (2002). Students’ goals, self-efficacy, self-handicapping, and negative affective responses: An Australian senior school student study. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 27(3), 471–485.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.
Taylor, P. C., Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1997). Monitoring constructivist classroom learning environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 27(4), 293–302. doi:10.1016/S0883-
0355(97)90011-2
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: Examining Achievement Goals, Classroom Goal Structures, and Culture. Journal of Educational Psychology,
96(2), 251. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.251
Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2003). Changes in the perceived classroom goal structure and pattern of adaptive learning during early adolescence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(4), 524–551. doi:10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00060-7
Urdan, T., Midgley, C., & Anderman, E. M. (1998). The Role of Classroom Goal Structure in Students’ Use of Self-Handicapping Strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 35(1), 101–122. doi:10.3102/00028312035001101
Walberg, H. J. (1969). Social environment as a mediator of classroom learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60(6), 443–448. doi:10.1037/h0028499
Walker, S. L., & Fraser, B. J. (2005). Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Distance Education Learning Environments in Higher Education: The Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES). Learning Environments Research, 8(3), 289–308. doi:10.1007/s10984-005-1568-3
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1990). What Influences Learning? A Content Analysis of Review Literature. The Journal of Educational Research, 84(1), 30–43.
Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students’ motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8(3), 211–238. doi:10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90015-1
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261–271. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260–267. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.3.260
Archer, J. (1994). Achievement Goals as a Measure of Motivation in University Students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 19(4), 430–446. doi:10.1006/ceps.1994.1031
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338–375. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Church, M. A., Elliot, A. J., & Gable, S. L. (2001). Perceptions of classroom environment, achievement goals, and achievement outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 43–54.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.43
Cleveland, B., & Fisher, K. (2014). The evaluation of physical learning environments: a critical review of the literature. Learning Environments Research, 17(1), 1–28. doi:10.1007/s10984-013-9149-3
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, N.J: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Cunningham, D. J. (1992). Beyond educational psychology: Steps toward an educational semiotic. Educational Psychology Review, 4(2), 165–194. doi:10.1007/BF01322343
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (2001). Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation in Education: Reconsidered Once Again. Review of Educational Research, 71(1), 1–27.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.
DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: theory and applications (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, Inc.
Dweck, C. S. (1985). Intrinsic motivation, perceived control, and self-evaluation maintenance: An achievement goal analysis. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on Motivation in Education: The classroom milieu. Academic Press.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1040–1048. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1040
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(1), 218–232. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.1.218
Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(3), 461–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461
Elliot, A. J., & McGregor, H. A. (1999). Test anxiety and the hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(4), 628–644. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.4.628
Elliot, A. J., Murayama, K., & Pekrun, R. (2011). A 3 × 2 achievement goal model. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3), 632–648. doi:10.1037/a0023952
Elliott, E. S., & Dweck, C. S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(1), 5–12. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.1.5
Fraser, B. J. (1981). Test of Science Related Attitudes. Perth, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research.
Fraser, B. J. (1989). Twenty years of classroom climate work: progress and prospect. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 21(4), 307–327. doi:10.1080/0022027890210402
Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1982). Effects of Classroom Psychosocial Environment on Student Learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 52(3), 374–377. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1982.tb02525.x
Gibbs, G., & Simpson, C. (2004). Conditions under Which Assessment Supports Students’ Learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1(1), 3–31.
Gijbels, D., & Dochy, F. (2006). Students’ assessment preferences and approaches to learning: can formative assessment make a difference? Educational Studies, 32(4), 399–409.
doi:10.1080/03055690600850354
Greene, B. A., Miller, R. B., Crowson, H. M., Duke, B. L., & Akey, K. L. (2004). Predicting high school students’ cognitive engagement and achievement: Contributions of classroom
perceptions and motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29(4), 462–482. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.01.006
Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3),
638–645. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.638
Herrington, J., Reeves, T. C., & Oliver, R. (2014). Authentic Learning Environments. In J. M. Spector, M. D. Merrill, J. Elen, & M. J. Bishop (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 401–412). Springer New York.
Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., & Midgley, C. (2002). Classroom goal structure and student disruptive behaviour. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(2), 191–211.
Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2007). The Contributions and Prospects of Goal Orientation Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141–184. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5
Lizzio, A., Wilson, K., & Simons, R. (2002). University Students’ Perceptions of the Learning Environment and Academic Outcomes: Implications for theory and practice. Studies in Higher
Education, 27(1), 27–52. doi:10.1080/03075070120099359
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Loyens, S. M. M., & Gijbels, D. (2008). Understanding the effects of constructivist learning environments: introducing a multi-directional approach. Instructional Science, 36(5-6), 351–357.
doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9059-4
Mažgon, J., & Štefanc, D. (2012). Importance of the Various Characteristics of Educational Materials: Different Opinions, Different Perspectives. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology (TOJET), 11(3), 174–188.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Classroom Goal Structure, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 487–503. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070258
Middleton, M. J., & Midgley, C. (1997). Avoiding the demonstration of lack of ability: An underexplored aspect of goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4), 710–718.
doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.710
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales. Michigan: University of Michigan.
Moos, R. H. (1974). Systems for the assessment and classification of human environments: An overview. In R. H. Moos & P. M. Insel (Eds.), Issues in Social Ecology: Human Milieus (pp. 5–29). Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.
Moos, R. H. (2002). The Mystery of Human Context and Coping: An Unraveling of Clues. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30(1), 67–88. doi:10.1023/A:1014372101550
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328–346. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328
Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Nolen, S. B. (1985). Adolescents’ theories of education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 683–692. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.6.683
Nie, Y., & Lau, S. (2010). Differential relations of constructivist and didactic instruction to students’ cognition, motivation, and achievement. Learning and Instruction, 20(5), 411–423. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.04.002
Pajares, F. (1997). Current Directions in Self-efficacy Research. In M. L. Maehr & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 1–49). Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press.
Pintrich, P. R. (2000). Multiple goals, multiple pathways: The role of goal orientation in learning and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(3), 544–555. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.92.3.544
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1991). A Manual for the Use of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (No. Technical Report No. 91-8-004). Ann Arbor, MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Merrill Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The
mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(3), 408–422. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.3.408
Segers, M. (1996). Assessment in a Problem-Based Economics Curriculum. In M. Birenbaum & F. Dochy (Eds.), Alternatives inAssessment of Achievements, Learning Processes and Prior Learning (pp. 201–226). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement Goal Theory at the Crossroads: Old Controversies, Current Challenges, and New Directions. Educational Psychologist,
46(1), 26–47. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.538646
Skaalvik, E. M. (1997). Self-enhancing and self-defeating ego orientation: Relations with task and avoidance orientation, achievement, self-perceptions, and anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(1), 71–81. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.1.71
Smith, L., Sinclair, K. E., & Chapman, E. S. (2002). Students’ goals, self-efficacy, self-handicapping, and negative affective responses: An Australian senior school student study. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 27(3), 471–485.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.
Taylor, P. C., Fraser, B. J., & Fisher, D. L. (1997). Monitoring constructivist classroom learning environments. International Journal of Educational Research, 27(4), 293–302. doi:10.1016/S0883-
0355(97)90011-2
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: Examining Achievement Goals, Classroom Goal Structures, and Culture. Journal of Educational Psychology,
96(2), 251. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.251
Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2003). Changes in the perceived classroom goal structure and pattern of adaptive learning during early adolescence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(4), 524–551. doi:10.1016/S0361-476X(02)00060-7
Urdan, T., Midgley, C., & Anderman, E. M. (1998). The Role of Classroom Goal Structure in Students’ Use of Self-Handicapping Strategies. American Educational Research Journal, 35(1), 101–122. doi:10.3102/00028312035001101
Walberg, H. J. (1969). Social environment as a mediator of classroom learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 60(6), 443–448. doi:10.1037/h0028499
Walker, S. L., & Fraser, B. J. (2005). Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Distance Education Learning Environments in Higher Education: The Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES). Learning Environments Research, 8(3), 289–308. doi:10.1007/s10984-005-1568-3
Wang, M. C., Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1990). What Influences Learning? A Content Analysis of Review Literature. The Journal of Educational Research, 84(1), 30–43.
Wolters, C. A., Yu, S. L., & Pintrich, P. R. (1996). The relation between goal orientation and students’ motivational beliefs and self-regulated learning. Learning and Individual Differences, 8(3), 211–238. doi:10.1016/S1041-6080(96)90015-1
Published
2015-06-30
How to Cite
Radovan, M., & Makovec, D. (2015). Relations between Students’ Motivation, and Perceptions of the Learning Environment. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 5(2), 115-138. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.145
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