Critical Reflection in the Professional Development of Teachers: Challenges and Possibilities
Keywords:
critical reflection, encouragement of critical reflection, professional development of teachers, teacher learning
Abstract
Critical reflection in teachers’ professional development has received much attention in the scholarly literature, and there is an overwhelming consensus about its great significance to the quality of teachers’ work. Nevertheless, despite the well-established role of reflection, a large gap between the professed goals and the actual reflective practice of teachers remains. The article starts with a short overview of the different definitions of critical reflection in the context of teachers’ professional development and then underlines some empirical research findings on the problems that teachers and teacher educators face when putting reflective practice into practice, especially at the deeper and more complex levels of reflection. It continues with a consideration of teachers’ qualifications for in-depth reflection as well as the obstacles and challenges facing teachers and teacher educators. The obstacles occur at the level of individual teachers’ personal traits and at the level of the context in which reflection is done. Employing an analysis of the obstacles, the authors develop some guidelines on how to support teachers in their attempts at making critical reflection part of their teaching practice. It is crucial for this encouragement not to overlook the principal purpose of teachers’ critical reflection; to contribute to new insights, knowledge reframing, and the introduction of such changes in teaching that will support students’ learning and the development of the community for the better learning, work, and life of all its individuals.
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References
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Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., & Walker, D. (1998). Promoting reflection in professional courses: The challenge of context. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 191–206.
Cvetek, S. (2003). Refleksija in njen pomen za profesionalno usposobljenost uÄiteljev. [Reflection and its significance in terms of the professional qualification of teachers]. Sodobna pedagogika, 54(1), 104–121.
Cvetek, S. (2015). UÄenje in pouÄevanje v visokoÅ¡olskem izobraževanju, Teorija in praksa [Learning and teaching in higher education: Theory and practice]. Ljubljana: BuÄa.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. Publishers.
Handal, G., & Lauvås, P. (1987). Promoting reflective teaching: Supervision in practice. Milton Keynes: SRHE in Open University Press.
Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33–49.
Hobbs, V. (2007). Faking it or hating it: Can reflective practice be forced? Reflective Practice, 8(3), 405–417.
Jay, J. K., & Johnson, K. L. (2002). Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 73–85.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2001a). A reflection on reflection. In F. A. J. Korthagen, J. Kessels, B. Koster, B. Lagerwerf, & T. Wubbels (Eds.), Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education (pp. 51–68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2001b). A broader view of reflection. In F. A. J. Korthagen, J. Kessels, B. Koster, B. Lagerwerf, & T. Wubbels (Eds.), Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education (pp. 231–238). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2005). Practice, Theory, and Person in Life-Long Professional Learning. In D. Beijaard, P. C. Meijer, G. Morine-Dershimer, & H. Tillema (Eds.), Teacher Professional Development in Changing Conditions (pp. 79–94). Dordrecht: Springer.
Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: towards professional development 3.0. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 23(4), 387–405.
Korthagen, F. A., Kessels, J., Koster, B., Lagerwerf, B., & Wubbels, T. (2001). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2005). Levels in reflection: core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 11(1), 47–71.
Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2009, August). From reflection to presence and mindfulness: 30 years of developments concerning the concept of reflection in teacher education. Paper presented at the EARLI conference, Amsterdam.
Larrivee, B. (2008). Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice. Reflective Practice, 9(3), 341–360.
Liu, K. (2015). Critical reflection as a framework for transformative learning in teacher education. Educational Review, 67(2), 135–157.
Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33–43.
Mansvelder-Longayroux, D. D., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2007). The portfolio as a tool for stimulating reflection by student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(1), 47–62.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (1987). Nova pota v izobraževanju uÄiteljev [New paths in teacher education]. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenija.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (1993). Kako se uÄijo uÄitelji? [How teachers learn?]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 24(1), 13–15.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (2000). Profesionalizacija izobraževanja uÄiteljev – nujna predpostavka uspeÅ¡ne prenove [Professionalization of teacher education – necessary precondition of successful school reform]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 31(4), 4–11.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (2013). Uveljavljanje prvin akcijskega raziskovanja v projektu bralna pismenost [Establishing elements of action research in reading literacy project]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 44(2–3), 16–21.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B., & LavriÄ, A. (2015). Kako se uÄijo uÄitelji: (video) povratna informacija kot spodbuda za uÄiteljev profesionalni razvoj [How teachers learn: (Video)feedback as an
encouragement for teachers’ professional development]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 46(1), 7–15.
Meijer, P. C., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2009). Supporting presence in teacher education: The connection between the personal and professional aspects of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(2), 297–308.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
Pareja Roblin, N., & Margalef, L. (2013). Learning from dilemmas: teacher professional development through collaborative action and reflection. Teachers and Teaching, 19(1), 18–32.
Polak, A. (1995). Kaj nam razkrivajo dnevniki pedagoške prakse? [What are teachers’ practicum journals revealing?] Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 26(2), 19–22.
Polak, A. (2010). Refleksija pedagoÅ¡kega dela v vrtcu: razsežnosti in pomen za profesionalni razvoj [Reflection in preschool education: Dimensions and significance for professional development]. In T. Devjak, M. BatistiÄ-Zorec, J. Vogrinc, D. Skubic, & S. BerÄnik (Eds.), PedagoÅ¡ki koncept Reggio Emilia in Kurikulum za vrtce: podobnosti v razliÄnosti (pp. 431–444). Ljubljana: PedagoÅ¡ka fakulteta.
Rodgers, C. R. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers College Record, 104(4), 842–866.
Rodgers, C. R., & Raider-Roth, M. B. (2006). Presence in teaching. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and practice, 12(3), 265–287.
Rupnik Vec, T. (2006a). KritiÄna samorefleksija – temelj profesionalnega razvoja in rasti [Critical self-reflection – A foundation of professional development and growth]. Socialna pedagogika, 10(4), 429–465.
Rupnik Vec, T. (2006b). Pojmovanja kritiÄnega miÅ¡ljenja [Concpetions of critical thinking]. In T. Rupnik Vec, & A. Kompare (Eds.), KritiÄno miÅ¡ljenje v Å¡oli (pp. 9–54). Ljubljana: Zavod Republike
Slovenije za Å¡olstvo.
Schön, D. A. (1983). Reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Selkrig, M., & Keamy (R.) K. (2015). Promoting a willingness to wonder: moving from congenial to collegial conversations that encourage deep and critical reflection for teacher educators. Teachers and Teaching, 21(4), 421–436.
Sockett, H. (2008). The moral and epistemic purposes of teacher education. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre, & K. E. Demers (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: Enduring questions in changing contexts (pp. 45–65). New York: Routledge.
Å arić, M. (2015). Refleksija kot orodje za prepoznavanje in predelovanje Äustev uÄiteljev pri delu (neobjavljena doktorska disertacija) [Reflection as a tool for teachers’ emotion recognition and regulation, unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts.
Šteh, B., & Šarić, M. (2016). Ocenjevanje v visokem šolstvu: ovira ali spodbuda za kakovosten študij [Assessment in higher education: An obstacle or an encouragement for quality study]. In K. Aškerc (Ed.), Improving the quality of teaching and learning in higher education (pp. 64–69). Ljubljana: Center RS za mobilnost in evropske programme izobraževanja in usposabljanja.
Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(3), 260–264.
Tickle, L. (2005). The crucible of the classroom: A learning environment for teachers or a site of crucifixion? In D. Beijaard, P. C. Meijer, G. Morine-Dersheimer, & H. Tillema (Eds.), Teacher
professional development in changing conditions (pp. 61–77). Dordrecht: Springer.
Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 284–304.
Tremmel, R. (1993). Zen and the art of reflective practice in teacher education. Harvard Educational Review, 63(4), 434–458.
Tripp, T., & Rich, P. (2012). Using video to analyze one’s own teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), 678–704.
ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, M. (2008). UÄitelj na putu profesionalnog razvoja. Od poÄetnika do eksperta [Teacher on the way of professional development: From beginner to expert]. VrÅ¡ac: Visoka Å¡kola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitaÄa »Mihailo Palov« VrÅ¡ac.
ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, M., & Bizjak, C. (2007). A Mentor Between Supporting and Challenging a Novice’s Reflection. In M. ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, & J. Vogrinc (Eds.), Professional Induction of Teachers in Europe and Elsewhere (pp. 309–323). Ljubljana: Faculty of Education.
Van Eekelen, I. M., Vermunt, J. D., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2006). Exploring teachers’ will to learn. Teachers and Teaching Education, 22(4), 408–423.
Van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6(3), 205–228.
Van Manen, M. (1995). On the epistemology of reflective practice. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 1(1), 33–50.
Vermunt, J. D. (2014). Teacher Learning and Professional Development. In S. Krolak-Schwerdt, S. Glock, & M. Böhmer (Eds.), Teachers’ Professional Development: Assesment, Training, and Learning (pp. 79–95). Rotterdam, Boston, Taipei: Sense Publishers.
Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 163–206.
Zeichner K. M., & Liston, D. P. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 23–48.
BeÄaj, J. (2009). Cilji so vedno v oblakih, pot pa je mogoÄa le v resniÄnosti [Goals are alwys in the clouds, the way is possible only in actual reality]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 40(jubilee issue), 27–40.
Boud, D. (2010). Relocating reflection in the context of practice. In H. Bradbury, N. Frost S. Kilminster, & M. Zukas (Eds.), Beyond reflective practice: new approaches to professional lifelong learning (pp. 25–36). Abingdon: Routledge.
Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D. (1985). Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., & Walker, D. (1998). Promoting reflection in professional courses: The challenge of context. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 191–206.
Cvetek, S. (2003). Refleksija in njen pomen za profesionalno usposobljenost uÄiteljev. [Reflection and its significance in terms of the professional qualification of teachers]. Sodobna pedagogika, 54(1), 104–121.
Cvetek, S. (2015). UÄenje in pouÄevanje v visokoÅ¡olskem izobraževanju, Teorija in praksa [Learning and teaching in higher education: Theory and practice]. Ljubljana: BuÄa.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co. Publishers.
Handal, G., & Lauvås, P. (1987). Promoting reflective teaching: Supervision in practice. Milton Keynes: SRHE in Open University Press.
Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33–49.
Hobbs, V. (2007). Faking it or hating it: Can reflective practice be forced? Reflective Practice, 8(3), 405–417.
Jay, J. K., & Johnson, K. L. (2002). Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 73–85.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2001a). A reflection on reflection. In F. A. J. Korthagen, J. Kessels, B. Koster, B. Lagerwerf, & T. Wubbels (Eds.), Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education (pp. 51–68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2001b). A broader view of reflection. In F. A. J. Korthagen, J. Kessels, B. Koster, B. Lagerwerf, & T. Wubbels (Eds.), Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education (pp. 231–238). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2005). Practice, Theory, and Person in Life-Long Professional Learning. In D. Beijaard, P. C. Meijer, G. Morine-Dershimer, & H. Tillema (Eds.), Teacher Professional Development in Changing Conditions (pp. 79–94). Dordrecht: Springer.
Korthagen, F. (2017). Inconvenient truths about teacher learning: towards professional development 3.0. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 23(4), 387–405.
Korthagen, F. A., Kessels, J., Koster, B., Lagerwerf, B., & Wubbels, T. (2001). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2005). Levels in reflection: core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 11(1), 47–71.
Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2009, August). From reflection to presence and mindfulness: 30 years of developments concerning the concept of reflection in teacher education. Paper presented at the EARLI conference, Amsterdam.
Larrivee, B. (2008). Development of a tool to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice. Reflective Practice, 9(3), 341–360.
Liu, K. (2015). Critical reflection as a framework for transformative learning in teacher education. Educational Review, 67(2), 135–157.
Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(1), 33–43.
Mansvelder-Longayroux, D. D., Beijaard, D., & Verloop, N. (2007). The portfolio as a tool for stimulating reflection by student teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23(1), 47–62.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (1987). Nova pota v izobraževanju uÄiteljev [New paths in teacher education]. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenija.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (1993). Kako se uÄijo uÄitelji? [How teachers learn?]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 24(1), 13–15.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (2000). Profesionalizacija izobraževanja uÄiteljev – nujna predpostavka uspeÅ¡ne prenove [Professionalization of teacher education – necessary precondition of successful school reform]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 31(4), 4–11.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B. (2013). Uveljavljanje prvin akcijskega raziskovanja v projektu bralna pismenost [Establishing elements of action research in reading literacy project]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 44(2–3), 16–21.
MarentiÄ Požarnik, B., & LavriÄ, A. (2015). Kako se uÄijo uÄitelji: (video) povratna informacija kot spodbuda za uÄiteljev profesionalni razvoj [How teachers learn: (Video)feedback as an
encouragement for teachers’ professional development]. Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 46(1), 7–15.
Meijer, P. C., Korthagen, F. A. J., & Vasalos, A. (2009). Supporting presence in teacher education: The connection between the personal and professional aspects of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25(2), 297–308.
Moon, J. A. (2004). A handbook of reflective and experiential learning: Theory and practice. London: Routledge Falmer.
Pareja Roblin, N., & Margalef, L. (2013). Learning from dilemmas: teacher professional development through collaborative action and reflection. Teachers and Teaching, 19(1), 18–32.
Polak, A. (1995). Kaj nam razkrivajo dnevniki pedagoške prakse? [What are teachers’ practicum journals revealing?] Vzgoja in izobraževanje, 26(2), 19–22.
Polak, A. (2010). Refleksija pedagoÅ¡kega dela v vrtcu: razsežnosti in pomen za profesionalni razvoj [Reflection in preschool education: Dimensions and significance for professional development]. In T. Devjak, M. BatistiÄ-Zorec, J. Vogrinc, D. Skubic, & S. BerÄnik (Eds.), PedagoÅ¡ki koncept Reggio Emilia in Kurikulum za vrtce: podobnosti v razliÄnosti (pp. 431–444). Ljubljana: PedagoÅ¡ka fakulteta.
Rodgers, C. R. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers College Record, 104(4), 842–866.
Rodgers, C. R., & Raider-Roth, M. B. (2006). Presence in teaching. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and practice, 12(3), 265–287.
Rupnik Vec, T. (2006a). KritiÄna samorefleksija – temelj profesionalnega razvoja in rasti [Critical self-reflection – A foundation of professional development and growth]. Socialna pedagogika, 10(4), 429–465.
Rupnik Vec, T. (2006b). Pojmovanja kritiÄnega miÅ¡ljenja [Concpetions of critical thinking]. In T. Rupnik Vec, & A. Kompare (Eds.), KritiÄno miÅ¡ljenje v Å¡oli (pp. 9–54). Ljubljana: Zavod Republike
Slovenije za Å¡olstvo.
Schön, D. A. (1983). Reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic Books.
Selkrig, M., & Keamy (R.) K. (2015). Promoting a willingness to wonder: moving from congenial to collegial conversations that encourage deep and critical reflection for teacher educators. Teachers and Teaching, 21(4), 421–436.
Sockett, H. (2008). The moral and epistemic purposes of teacher education. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, D. J. McIntyre, & K. E. Demers (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education: Enduring questions in changing contexts (pp. 45–65). New York: Routledge.
Å arić, M. (2015). Refleksija kot orodje za prepoznavanje in predelovanje Äustev uÄiteljev pri delu (neobjavljena doktorska disertacija) [Reflection as a tool for teachers’ emotion recognition and regulation, unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Ljubljana: University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Arts.
Šteh, B., & Šarić, M. (2016). Ocenjevanje v visokem šolstvu: ovira ali spodbuda za kakovosten študij [Assessment in higher education: An obstacle or an encouragement for quality study]. In K. Aškerc (Ed.), Improving the quality of teaching and learning in higher education (pp. 64–69). Ljubljana: Center RS za mobilnost in evropske programme izobraževanja in usposabljanja.
Takano, K., & Tanno, Y. (2009). Self-rumination, self-reflection, and depression: Self-rumination counteracts the adaptive effect of self-reflection. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47(3), 260–264.
Tickle, L. (2005). The crucible of the classroom: A learning environment for teachers or a site of crucifixion? In D. Beijaard, P. C. Meijer, G. Morine-Dersheimer, & H. Tillema (Eds.), Teacher
professional development in changing conditions (pp. 61–77). Dordrecht: Springer.
Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). Private self-consciousness and the five-factor model of personality: Distinguishing rumination from reflection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 284–304.
Tremmel, R. (1993). Zen and the art of reflective practice in teacher education. Harvard Educational Review, 63(4), 434–458.
Tripp, T., & Rich, P. (2012). Using video to analyze one’s own teaching. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), 678–704.
ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, M. (2008). UÄitelj na putu profesionalnog razvoja. Od poÄetnika do eksperta [Teacher on the way of professional development: From beginner to expert]. VrÅ¡ac: Visoka Å¡kola strukovnih studija za obrazovanje vaspitaÄa »Mihailo Palov« VrÅ¡ac.
ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, M., & Bizjak, C. (2007). A Mentor Between Supporting and Challenging a Novice’s Reflection. In M. ValenÄiÄ Zuljan, & J. Vogrinc (Eds.), Professional Induction of Teachers in Europe and Elsewhere (pp. 309–323). Ljubljana: Faculty of Education.
Van Eekelen, I. M., Vermunt, J. D., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2006). Exploring teachers’ will to learn. Teachers and Teaching Education, 22(4), 408–423.
Van Manen, M. (1977). Linking ways of knowing with ways of being practical. Curriculum Inquiry, 6(3), 205–228.
Van Manen, M. (1995). On the epistemology of reflective practice. Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, 1(1), 33–50.
Vermunt, J. D. (2014). Teacher Learning and Professional Development. In S. Krolak-Schwerdt, S. Glock, & M. Böhmer (Eds.), Teachers’ Professional Development: Assesment, Training, and Learning (pp. 79–95). Rotterdam, Boston, Taipei: Sense Publishers.
Watkins, E. R. (2008). Constructive and unconstructive repetitive thought. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 163–206.
Zeichner K. M., & Liston, D. P. (1987). Teaching student teachers to reflect. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 23–48.
Published
2017-09-30
How to Cite
Šarić, M., & Šteh, B. (2017). Critical Reflection in the Professional Development of Teachers: Challenges and Possibilities. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal, 7(3), 67-85. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.288
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